branches of statistical methods Essay Case Assignment
Order ID 53563633773 Type Essay Writer Level Masters Style APA Sources/References 4 Perfect Number of Pages to Order 5-10 Pages
Description/Paper Instructions
branches of statistical methods Essay Case Assignment
John wants to train his dog, Spot, to shake hands. John decides to reward Spot with a treat every time Spot raises his paw. John hopes to increase Spot’s handshaking behavior by following the behavior with a reward. This is an example of
A. [removed] aversive conditioning B. [removed] positive reinforcement C. [removed] extinction D. [removed] negative reinforcement 2) Philosophers who believe that truth can emerge from the careful use of reason are known as
A. [removed] Dualists B. [removed] Rationalists C. [removed] Nativists D. [removed] Empiricists 3) The two branches of statistical methods are
A. [removed] quadratic; quantitative B. [removed] informal; formal C. [removed] quantitative; qualitative D. [removed] consumer; quantum 4) In a topographical representation of the motor cortex, the homunculus is the largest area devoted to
A. [removed] arms and legs B. [removed] the face C. [removed] the tongue D. [removed] the hands 5) What theorist presents a hierarchy of needs and motivations?
A. [removed] Abraham Maslow B. [removed] Carl Jung C. [removed] B.F. Skinner D. [removed] Sigmund Freud 6) Which of the following would be a concern for a person during early adulthood?
A. [removed] Relationships B. [removed] Midlife Crisis C. [removed] Leisure-time activities D. [removed] Civic responsibility 7) In operant conditioning, which of the following is accurate?
A. [removed] Any response that is followed by a reinforcing stimulus tends to be repeated. B. [removed] Any response that is followed by reward tends to become extinct. C. [removed] Any response that is preceded by a reinforcing stimulus tends to be repeated. D. [removed] Any response that is followed by punishment is likely to not be repeated. 8) The child begins to initiate, not imitate activities; to develop a conscience; and to experience a sexual identity. The ______stage, as defined by Erik Erikson, involves the crisis of initiative versus guilt.
A. [removed] Infant B. [removed] Preschooler C. [removed] School-age child D. [removed] Toddler 9) Which theorist is most associated with Social Learning Theory?
A. [removed] Carl Rogers B. [removed] Albert Bandura C. [removed] Rollo May D. [removed] B.F. Skinner 10) Which of the following is one of the five subtypes of schizophrenia?
A. [removed] Delusional B. [removed] Organized C. [removed] Complex D. [removed] Catatonic 11) The two psychologists credited with being the main founders of Industrial and Organizational Psychology are
A. [removed] Sherlin and Billingsly B. [removed] Freud and Jung C. [removed] Hebb and Skinner D. [removed] Munsterberg and Scott 12) Culture-bound syndromes refer to
A. [removed] medical conditions found in geographic areas of the world B. [removed] medical or psychic conditions limited to specific societies or cultural areas C. [removed] cultural names for common conditions found around the world D. [removed] medical or psychic conditions that are influenced by cultural factors 13) Environmental psychology can be defined as a behavioral science that investigates the interrelationships between
A. [removed] physical environment and human behavior B. [removed] emotional motivations and human behavior C. [removed] family dynamic and work behavior D. [removed] biological causes of physiological disregard 14) Validity in testing refers to which of the following?
A. [removed] Test scores are stable B. [removed] Different forms of the test can be used C. [removed] The test is measuring what it set to measure D. [removed] Whether the test is available in different languages 15) Most psychotherapists would describe themselves as being
A. [removed] Psychoanalytic B. [removed] Behavioral C. [removed] Cognitive D. [removed] Eclectic Home>Physics homework help>Lab5 physics
Custom Lab Manual UMUC Physical Science NSCI 101/103
© 2012, eScience Labs LLC All rights reserved
www.eciencelabs.com ● 888‐375‐5487
3
Table of Contents
Custom Lab Manual for Physical Science NSCI 101/103 Lab 1: Introduc on to Science Lab 2: Types of Forces Lab 3: Newton’s Laws Lab 4: Acids & Bases Lab 5: Chemical Processes Lab 6: Light Lab 7: Radioac vity
4
Time and Addi onal Materials Required
Time and Addi onal Materials Required for Each Lab
Lab 1: Introduc on to Science o Time Required: 60 minutes o Addi onal Materials Needed: None
Lab 2: Types of Forces o Time Required: 60 minutes o Addi onal Materials Needed: None
Lab 3: Newton’s Laws o Time Required: 60 minutes o Addi onal Materials Needed: A deep dish, water, 2 chairs (for supports)
Lab 4: Acids and Bases
o Time: 60 min. o Materials needed: Tomato juice, dis lled water, milk
Lab 5: Chemical Processes
o Time: 60 min. o Materials needed: none
Lab 6: Light o Time Required: 45‐60 minutes o Addi onal Materials Needed: White paper
Lab 7: Radioac vity o Time Required: 45‐60 minutes o Addi onal Materials Needed: None
5
Lab Safety
Lab Safety Always follow the instruc ons in your laboratory manual and these general rules:
Lab prepara on
- Please thoroughly read the lab exercise before star ng!
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please STOP and then:
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ü Check www.esciencelabs.com for updates and ps.
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ü If you have any ques ons or concerns, refer to the Material Safely Data Sheets
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requirements, exposure treatment and disposal instruc ons for each chemical.
- Consult your physician if you are pregnant, allergic to chemicals, or have other medical
condi ons that may require addi onal protec ve measures.
Proper lab a re
- Remove all loose clothing (jackets, sweatshirts, etc.) and always wear closed‐toe shoes.
- Long hair should be pulled back and secured and all jewelry (rings, watches, necklaces,
earrings, bracelets, etc.), should be removed.
- Safety glasses or goggles should be worn at all mes. In addi on, wearing so contact
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harmful chemicals.
eScience Labs, LLC designs every kit with safety as our top priority. Nonetheless, these are science kits and contain items which must be
handled with care. Safety in the laboratory always comes first!
6
Lab Safety
- When handling chemicals, always wear the protec ve goggles, gloves, and apron
provided.
Performing the experiment
- Do not eat, drink, chew gum, apply cosme cs or smoke while conduc ng an experi‐
ment.
- Work in a well ven lated area and monitor experiments at all mes, unless instructed
otherwise.
- When working with chemicals:
ü Never return unused chemicals to their original container or place chemicals in an
unmarked container.
ü Always put lids back onto chemicals immediately a er use.
ü Never ingest chemicals. If this occurs, seek immediate help.
Call 911 or “Poison Control” 1‐800‐222‐1222
- Never pipe e anything by mouth.
- Never leave a heat source una ended.
ü If there is a fire, evacuate the room immediately and dial 911.
Lab Clean‐up and Disposal
If a spill occurs, consult the MSDS to determine how to clean it up.
- Never pick up broken glassware with your hands. Use a broom and a dustpan and dis‐
card in a safe area.
- Do not use any part of the lab kit as a container for food.
- Safely dispose of chemicals. If there are any special requirements for disposal, it will
be noted in the lab manual.
- When finished, wash hands and lab equipment thoroughly with soap and water.
Above all, USE COMMON SENSE!
7
Student Portal
Introduc on o Safety Video o Scien fic Method Video
Newtonian Mechanics
The Science of Sailing Video o The Moving Man o Slam Dunk Science o The Science of Skateboarding o Projec le Mo on o Ladybug Revolu on o Energy Skate Park
Chemistry and Light
Acid base reac ons o Geometric Op cs
Log on to the Student Portal using these easy steps:
Visit our website, www.esciencelabs.com, and click on the green bu on (says
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Student Portal Content
Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
11
Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
What is science? You have likely taken several classes throughout your career as a student, and know that it
is more than just chapters in a book. Science is a process. It uses evidence to understand the history of the
natural world and how it works. Scien fic knowledge is constantly evolving as we understand more about the
natural world. Science begins with observa ons that can be measured in some way, and o en concludes with
observa ons from analyzed data.
Following the scien fic method helps to minimize bias when tes ng a theory. It helps scien sts collect and
organize informa on in a useful way so that pa erns and data can be analyzed in a meaningful way. As a sci‐
en st, you should use the scien fic method as you conduct the experiments throughout this manual.
Concepts to explore: · The Scien fic Method
- Observa ons
- Hypothesis
- Variables
- Controls
- Data Analysis
- Unit Conversions
- Scien fic Nota on
- Significant Digits
- Data Collec on
- Tables
- Graphs
- Percent Error
- Scien fic Reasoning
- Wri ng a Lab Report
Figure 1: The process of the scien fic method
12
Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
The process of the scien fic method begins with an observa on. For ex‐
ample, suppose you observe a plant growing towards a window. This ob‐
serva on could be the first step in designing an experiment. Remember
that observa ons are used to begin the scien fic method, but they may
also be used to help analyze data.
Observa ons can be quan ta ve (measurable), or qualita ve
(immeasurable; observa onal). Quan ta ve observa ons allow us to rec‐
ord findings as data, and leave li le room for subjec ve error. Qualita ve
observa ons cannot be measured. They rely on sensory percep ons. The
nature of these observa ons makes them more subjec ve and suscep ble
to human error.
Let’s review this with an example. Suppose you have a handful of pennies. You can make quan ta ve observa‐
ons that there are 15 pennies, and each is 1.9 cm in diameter. Both the quan ty, and the diameter, can be pre‐
cisely measured. You can also make qualita ve observa ons that they are brown, shiny, or smooth. The color and
texture are not numerically measured, and may vary based on the individual’s percep on or background.
Quan ta ve observa ons are generally preferred in science
because they involve “hard” data. Because of this, many sci‐
en fic instruments, such as microscopes and scales, have
been developed to alleviate the need for qualita ve observa‐
ons. Rather than observing that an object is large, we can
now iden fy specific mass, shapes, structures, etc.
There are s ll many situa ons, as you will encounter throughout this lab manual, in which qualita ve observa‐
ons provide useful data. No cing the color change of a leaf or the change in smell of a compound, for example,
are important observa ons and can provide a great deal of prac cal informa on.
Once an observa on has been made, the next step is to develop a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement de‐
scribing what the scien st thinks will happen in the experiment. A hypothesis is a proposed explana on for an
event based on observa on(s). A null hypothesis is a testable statement that if proven true, means the hypothe‐
sis was incorrect. Both a hypothesis and a null hypothesis statement must be testable, but only one can be true.
Hypotheses are typically wri en in an if/then format. For example:
Hypothesis:
If plants are grown in soil with added nutrients, then they will grow faster than plants grown without
added nutrients.
If plants grow quicker when nutrients are added, then the hypothesis is accepted and the null
hypothesis is rejected.
Figure 2: What affects plant growth?
13
Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
Null hypothesis:
If plants are grown in soil with added nutri‐
ents, then they will grow at the same rate as
plants grown in soil without nutrients.
There are o en many ways to test a hypothesis. However, three rules must always be followed for re‐
sults to be valid.
- The experiment must be replicable.
- Only test one variable at a me.
- Always include a control.
Experiments must be replicable to create valid theories. In other words, an
experiment must provide precise results over mul ple trials Precise results
are those which have very similar values (e.g., 85, 86, and 86.5) over mul ‐
ple trials. By contrast, accurate results are those which demonstrate what
you expected to happen (e.g., you expect the test results of three students
tests to be 80%, 67%, and 100%). The following example demonstrates the
significance of experimental repeatability. Suppose you conduct an experi‐
ment and conclude that ice melts in 30 seconds when placed on a burner,
but you do not record your procedure or define
the precise variables included. The conclusion
that you draw will not be recognized in the scien‐
fic community because other scien sts cannot
repeat your experiment and find the same results. What if another scien st
tries to repeat your ice experiment, but does not turn on the burner; or, us‐
es a larger ice chunk. The results will not be the same, because the experi‐
ment was not repeated using the same procedure. This makes the results
invalid, and demonstrates why it is important for an experiment to be repli‐
cable.
Variables are defined, measurable components of an experiment. Controlling variables in an experi‐
ment allows the scien st to quan fy changes that occur. This allows for focused results to be meas‐
ured; and, for refined conclusions to be drawn. There are two types of variables, independent variables
and dependent variables.
Independent variables are variables that scien sts select to change. For example, the me of day,
amount of substrate, etc. Independent variables are used by scien sts to test hypotheses. There can
If plants grow quicker when nutrients are added, then the hypothesis is accepted and the null
hypothesis is rejected.
Accurate results all hit the bulls‐eye on a target.
Precise results may not hit the bulls‐eye, but they all
hit the same region.
14
Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
only be one independent variable in each experiment. This is because if a change occurs, scien sts
need to be able to pinpoint the cause of the change. Independent variables are always placed on the x‐
axis of a chart or graph.
Dependent variables are variables that scien sts observe in rela onship to the independent variable.
Common examples of this are rate of reac on, color change, etc. Any changes observed in the depend‐
ent variable are caused by the changes in the independent variable. In other words, they depend on
the independent variable. There can be more than one dependent variable in an experiment. Depend‐
ent variables are placed on the y‐axis of a chart or graph.
A control is a sample of data collected in an experiment that is not exposed to the independent varia‐
ble. The control sample reflects the factors that could influence the results of the experiment, but do
not reflect the planned changes that might result from manipula ng the independent variable. Con‐
trols must be iden fied to eliminate compounding changes that could influence results. O en, the
hardest part of designing an experiment is determining how to isolate the independent variable and
control all other possible variables. Scien sts must be careful not to eliminate or create a factor that
could skew the results. For this reason, taking notes to account for uniden fied variables is important.
This might include factors such as temperature, humidity, me of day, or other environmental condi‐
ons that may impact results.
There are two types of controls, posi ve and nega ve. Nega ve controls are data samples in which
you expect no change to occur. They help scien sts determine that the experimental results are due to
the independent variable, rather than an uniden fied or unaccounted variable. For example, suppose
you need to culture bacteria and want to include a nega ve control. You could create this by streaking
a sterile loop across an agar plate. Sterile loops should not create any microbial growth; therefore, you
expect no change to occur on the agar plate. If no growth occurs, you can assume the equipment used
was sterile. However, if microbial growth does occur, you must assume that the equipment was con‐
taminated prior to the experiment and must redo the experiment with new materials.
Alterna vely, posi ve controls are data samples in which you do expect a change. Let’s return to the
growth example, but now you need to create a posi ve control. To do this, you now use a loop to
streak a plate with a sample that you know grows well on agar (such as E. coli). If the bacteria grow,
you can assume that the bacteria sample and agar are both suitable for the experiment. However, if
the bacteria do not grow, you must assume that the agar or bacteria has been compromised and you
must re‐do the experiment with new materials.
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Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
The scien fic method also requires data collec on. This may reflect what occurred before, during, or
a er an experiment. Collected results help reveal experimental results. Results should include all rele‐
vant observa ons, both quan ta ve and qualita ve.
A er results are collected, they can be analyzed. Data analysis o en involves a variety of calcula ons,
conversions, graphs, tables etc. The most common task a scien st faces is unit conversion. Units of
me are a common increment that must be converted. For example, suppose half of your data is meas‐
ured in seconds, but the other half is measured in minutes. It will be difficult to understand the rela‐
onship between the data if the units are not equivalent.
When calcula ng a unit conversion, significant digits must be accounted for. Significant digits are the
digits in a number or answer that describe how precise the value actually is. Consider the following
rules:
Addi on and subtrac on problems should result in an answer that has the same number of significant
decimal places as the least precise number in the calcula on. Mul plica on and division problems
should keep the same total number of significant digits as the least precise number in the calcula on.
For example:
Addi on Problem: 12.689 + 5.2 = 17.889 → round to 18
Mul plica on Problem: 28.8 x 54.76 = 1577.088 → round to 1580 (3 sig. digits)
Rule Example
Any non‐zero number (1‐9) is always significant
45 has two significant digits
has three significant digits
248678 has six significant digits
Any me a zero appears between significant num‐ bers, the zero is significant
4005 has four significant digits
0.34000000009 has eleven significant digits
Zeros that are ending numbers a er a decimal point or zeros that are a er significant numbers
before a decimal point are significant
45.00 has four significant digits
15000.00 has seven significant digits
Zeros that are used as placeholders are NOT sig‐ nificant digits
62000000 has only two significant digits
.0000000897 has only three significant digits
A zero at the end of a number with no decimal can be a significant digit
50 cm exactly has two significant digits (not
rounded)
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Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
Scien fic nota on is another common method used to transform a number. Scien fic data is o en very
large (e.g., the speed of light) or very small (e.g., the diameter of a cell). Scien fic nota on provides an
abbreviated expression of a number, so that scien sts don’t get caught up coun ng a long series of
zeroes.
There are three parts to scien fic nota on: the base, the coefficient and the exponent. Base 10 is al‐
most always used and makes the nota on easy to translate. The coefficient is always a number be‐
tween 1 and 10, and uses the significant digits of the original number. The exponent tells us whether
the number is greater or less than 1, and can be used to “count” the number of digits the decimal must
be moved to translate the number to regular nota on. A nega ve exponent tells you to move the deci‐
mal to the le , while a posi ve one tells you to move it to the right.
For example, the number 5,600,000 can be wri en as 5.6 x 10 6 . If you mul ply 5.6 by 10 six mes, you
will arrive at 5,600,000. Note the exponent, six, is posi ve because the number is larger than one. Al‐
terna ve, the number 0.00045 must be wri en using a nega ve exponent. To write this number in sci‐
en fic nota on, determine the coefficient. Remember that the coefficient must be between 1 and 10.
The significant digits are 4 and 5. Therefore, 4.5 is the coefficient. To determine the exponent, count
how many places you must move the decimal over to create the original number. Moving to the le ,
we have 0.45, 0.045, 0.0045, and finally 0.00045. Since we move the decimal 4 places to the le , our
exponent is ‐4. Wri en in scien fic nota on, we have 4.5 x 10 ‐4
Although these calcula ons may feel laborious, a well‐calculated presenta on can transform data into
a format that scien sts can more easily understand and learn from. Some of the most common meth‐
ods of data presenta on are:
Table: A well‐organized summary of data collected. Tables should display any informa on relevant to
the hypothesis. Always include a clearly stated tle, labeled columns and rows, and measurement
units.
Variable Height Wk. 1 (mm) Height Wk. 2 (mm) Height Wk. 3 (mm) Height Wk. 4 (mm)
Control (without nutrients)
3.6 3.7 4.0
Independent (with nutrients)
3.7 4.1 4.6
Table Example: Plant Growth With and Without Added Nutrients
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Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
Graph: A visual representa on of the rela onship between the independent and dependent variable.
They are typically created by using data from a table. Graphs are useful in iden fying trends and illus‐
tra ng findings. When construc ng a graph, it is important to use appropriate, consistent numerical
intervals. Titles and axes labels should also reflect the data table informa on. There are several differ‐
ent types of graphs, and each type serves a different purpose. Examples include line graphs or bar
graphs. Line graphs show the rela onship between variables using plo ed points that are connected
with a line. There must be a direct rela onship and dependence between each point connected. More
than one set of data can be presented on a line graph. By comparison, bar graphs: compare results that
are independent from each other, as opposed to a con nuous series.
Speed (kph)
Figure 4: Top speed for Cars A, B, C, and D
Figure 3: Plant growth, with and without nutrients, over me
Height (mm)
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Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
A er compiling the data, scien sts analyze the data to determine if the experiment supports or re‐
futes the hypothesis. If the hypothesis is supported, you may want to consider addi onal variables
that should be examined. If your data does not provide clear results, you may want to consider run‐
ning addi onal trials or revising the procedure to create a more precise outcome.
One way to analyze data is to calculate percent error. Many experiments perform trials which calcu‐
late known value. When this happens, you can compare experimental results to known values and cal‐
culate percent error. Low percent error indicates that results are accurate, and high percent error indi‐
cates that results are inaccurate. The formula for percent error is:
Note that the brackets in the numerator indicate “absolute value”. This means that the number in the
equa on is always posi ve.
Suppose your experiment involves gravity. Your experimental results indicate that the speed of gravity
is 10.1 m/s 2 , but the known value for gravity is 9.8 m/s
2 . We can calculate the percent error through
the following steps:
The scien fic method gives us a great founda on to conduct scien fic reasoning. The more data and
observa ons we are able to make, the more we are able to accurately reason through the natural phe‐
nomena which occur in our daily lives. Scien fic reasoning does not always include a structured lab
report, but it always helps society to think through difficult concepts and determine solu ons. For ex‐
ample, scien fic reasoning can be used to create a response to the changing global climate, develop
medical solu ons to health concerns, or even learn about subatomic par cles and tendencies.
Although the scien fic method and scien fic reasoning can guide society through cri cal or abstract
thinking, the scien fic industry typically promotes lab reports as a universal method of data analysis
and presenta on. In general terms, a lab report is a scien fic paper describing the premise of an ex‐
periment, the procedures taken, and the results of the study. They provide a wri en record of what
Percent Error = |(Experimental—Actual)| x 100% Actual
Percent Error = |(10.1 m/ s2 ‐ 9.8 m/s
2 )| x 100%
(9.8 m/s 2 )
Percent Error = |0.3 | x 100% (Note the units cancel each other out) (9.8 )
Percent Error = 0.0306 x 100% = 3.1% (Remember the significant digits)
19
Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
took place to help others learn and expedite future experimental pro‐
cesses. Though most lab reports go unpublished, it is important to
write a report that accurately characterizes the experiment per‐
formed.
Title A short statement summarizing the topic
Abstract A brief summary of the methods, results and conclusions. It should not exceed 200 words and should be the last part wri en.
Introduc on
An overview of why the experiment was conducted. It should include:
- Background ‐ Provide an overview of what is already known and what ques ons re‐ main unresolved. Be sure the reader is given enough informa on to know why and how the experiment was performed.
- Objec ve ‐ Explain the purpose of the experiment (i.e. “I want to determine if taking baby aspirin every day prevents second heart a acks.”)
- Hypothesis ‐ This is your “guess” as to what will happen when you do the experiment.
Materials and Methods A detailed descrip on of what was used to conduct the experiment, what was actually done (step by step) and how it was done. The descrip on should be exact enough that someone reading the report can replicate the experiment.
Results Data and observa ons obtained during the experiment. This sec on should be clear and concise. Tables and graphs are o en appropriate in this sec on. Interpreta ons should not be included here.
Discussion
Data interpreta ons and experimental conclusions.
- Discuss the meaning of your findings. Look for common themes, rela onships and points that perhaps generate more ques ons.
- When appropriate, discuss outside factors (i.e. temperature, me of day, etc.) that may have played a role in the experiment.
- Iden fy what could be done to control for these factors in future experiments. Conclusion A short, concise summary that states what has been learned.
References Any ar cles, books, magazines, interviews, newspapers, etc. that were used to support
your background, experimental protocols, discussions and conclusions.
Part of the Lab Report Purpose
Figure 5: Lab reports are an important part of science, providing a way to
report conclusions and ideas.
20
Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
Exercise 1: Data Interpreta on
Dissolved oxygen is oxygen that is trapped in a fluid, such as water. Since virtually every living organ‐
ism requires oxygen to survive, it is a necessary component of water systems such as streams, lakes
and rivers in order to support aqua c life. The dissolved oxygen is measured in units of ppm—or parts
per million. Examine the data in Table 2 showing the amount of dissolved oxygen present and the
number of fish observed in the body of water the sample was taken from; finally, answer the ques‐
ons below.
Ques ons
What pa erns do you observe based on the informa on in Table 2?
Develop a hypothesis rela ng to the amount of dissolved oxygen measured in the water sample
and the number of fish observed in the body of water.
What would your experimental approach be to test this hypothesis?
What would be the independent and dependent variables?
What would be your controls?
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
2 4 6
Number of Fish Observed
1 3 10
Table 2: Water Quality vs. Fish Popula on
21
Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
What type of graph would be appropriate for this data set? Why?
Graph the data from Table 2: Water Quality vs. Fish Popula on (found at the beginning of this
experiment).
Interpret the data from the graph made in Ques on 7.
Exercise 2: Testable Observa ons
Determine which of the following observa ons are testable. For those that are testable:
Determine if the observa on is qualita ve or quan ta ve
Write a hypothesis and null hypothesis
What would be your experimental approach?
What are the dependent and independent variables?
What are your controls ‐ both posi ve and nega ve?
How will you collect your data?
How will you present your data (charts, graphs, types)?
How will you analyze your data?
Observa ons
When a plant is placed on a window sill, it grows 3 inches faster per day than when it is placed on
a coffee table in the middle of the living room.
Quan ta ve
The teller at the bank with brown hair and brown eyes is taller than the other tellers.
22
Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
When Sally eats healthy foods and exercises regularly, her blood pressure is 10 points lower than
when she does not exercise and eats fa y foods.
The Italian restaurant across the street closes at 9 pm but the one two blocks away closes at 10
For the past two days, the clouds have come out at 3 pm and it has started raining at 3:15 pm.
George did not sleep at all the night following the start of daylight savings.
Exercise 3: Conversion
For each of the following, convert each value into the designated units.
46,756,790 mg = _______ kg
5.6 hours = ________ seconds
13.5 cm = ________ inches
47 °C = _______ °F
Exercise 4: Accuracy and Precision
For the following, determine whether the informa on is accurate, precise, both or neither.
During gym class, four students decided to see if they could beat the norm of 45 sit‐ups in a mi‐
nute. The first student did 64 sit‐ups, the second did 69, the third did 65, and the fourth did 67.
The average score for the 5th grade math test is 89.5. The top 4th graders took the test and
23
Lab 1: Introduc on to Science
scored 89, 93, 91 and 87.
Yesterday the temperature was 89 °F, tomorrow it’s supposed to be 88°F and the next day it’s
supposed to be 90°F, even though the average for September is only 75°F degrees!
Four friends decided to go out and play horseshoes. They took a picture
of their results shown to the right:
A local grocery store was holding a contest to see who could most closely
guess the number of pennies that they had inside a large jar. The first six
people guessed the numbers 735, 209, 390, 300, 1005 and 689. The gro‐
cery clerk said the jar actually contains 568 pennies.
Exercise 5: Significant Digits and Scien fic Nota on
Part 1: Determine the number of significant digits in each number and write out the specific signifi‐
cant digits.
405000
0.0098
39.999999
13.00
80,000,089
55,430.00
0.000033
620.03080
Part 2: Write the numbers below in scien fic nota on, incorpora ng what you know about signifi‐
cant digits.
70,000,000,000
0.000000048
67,890,000
70,500
450,900,800
0.009045
0.023
Lab 2: Types of Forces
27
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Mo on is an elementary concept of physics. It is what happens when an object changes posi on and is produced by a force (a push or pull on the object). Kinema cs is the study of how things move. Be‐ cause we deal so much with moving objects in the world, kinema cs is one of the most important and visual areas in physics. It is important to remember that mo on is rela ve. Even when we stand s ll, we are s ll moving. The Earth that we stand on is rota ng and thus we are s ll moving. Nonetheless, it is of great value to measure how things move. Velocity is a measure of how fast something is moving in a specific direc on (velocity is commonly called speed, but the two terms have an important difference). Expressed as a ra o, velocity is the distance an object covers over an elapsed me. Since we don’t know how much the object has accelerated or decelerated in between measurements, this ra o will give us an average velocity:
Figure 1: Surprisingly, light and heavy objects fall at the same rate when there is no air resistance. If these two objects were dropped in a vacuum, both would hit the
ground at the same me.
Concepts to explore: · Kinema cs
- Types of forces
- Velocity
- Accelera on
- Balanced/unbalanced forces
- Free body diagrams
- Net force
- Equilibrium
v = Δx Δt
28
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Here, the value Δx is called the displacement, which is another word for the total change in posi on measured in a straight line from an object’s star ng point to its ending point. (Note: Δ is the Greek symbol for ‘change’ and represents a calcula on of the final measurement subtracted by the ini al measurement). Velocity can be measured as an average over me—as above—or at a single moment (instantaneous velocity). Velocity differs from our normal understanding of speed in that it requires a known direc on. For example, if a car is driving 30 mph at a moment in me we know its speed; but, if we say it is going 30 mph west, we know the velocity at that point. Constant velocity requires both constant speed and constant direc on. Accelera on occurs when an object undergoes a change in velocity. Therefore, accelera on occurs when an object’s speed, direc‐ on of travel, or both change :
When you press the gas pedal in your car while driving on a straight road, you will experience linear accelera on. The force of the seat pressing against your back indicates this change in velocity. If you are driving around a turn, your speed may be constant but your direc on is changing. Fric on between the road and your res is causing you to accelerate into a new direc on of mo on. All accelera ons are caused by forces—more specifically, unbalanced forces. There are many types of forces that can act on an object, characterized by the type of interac on between objects.
- Applied force is the force exerted on the object by a person or another object. · Gravita onal force is a force of a rac on between two masses. The size of the gravita on‐
al force depends on the size of the masses and the distance between them (Fgravity=m ·g). Gravity is a long‐range force which is rela vely weak, but it can have great effects when objects are very massive—such as planets!
- An electromagne c force is a force that occurs between charged objects. Like gravity, elec‐ tromagne c forces can act at long ranges. These forces are very powerful even if the par ‐ cles involved do not have much mass. Atomic nuclei are held together by electromagne c forces.
- The normal force is the support force exerted on an object when it is in contact with an‐ other sta onary object. The normal force is the force exerted upward by the ground on your feet (or whatever you are standing on) that keeps you from falling through the sur‐ face.
- Fric onal forces act to oppose the mo on of an object. No surface is perfectly smooth at a microscopic scale. Fric on occurs when two surfaces are pressed together and molecules
Figure 2: Scalar quan es express magnitudes, while vector quan es ex‐ press magnitude and direc on.
Scalar: Average Speed = 10 m/s
Vector: Velocity = 10 m/s at 30°
a = Δv Δt
29
Lab 2: Types of Forces
on each surface collide, impeding each other’s mo on. A specialized fric on force when an object is in free fall is air resistance, which is affected by the speed of an object and its cross‐sec onal area. Though it can never cause an object to move, it can check or stop mo‐ on. As resistance, fric on wastes power, creates heat and causes wear. It has been shown
that the force required to slide one object over another is propor onal to the normal force pressing the surfaces together, expressed by the equa on shown below: Ff = μFN where μ is called the coefficient of fric on and represents the roughness of the surfaces in contact. There are two types of fric on, sta c (not moving) fric on and kine c (moving) fric on. They have unique coefficients of fric on, μs
and μk, respec vely. In general, μs ≥ μk.
- Tensile forces are transmi ed through an object when opposing forces pull at op‐ posite ends. The tension force pulls equally on the object from the opposite ends.
- Spring forces are exerted on an object by a compressed or stretched spring. The spring acts to restore its original or equi‐ librium posi on. For most springs, the magnitude of the force is directly propor‐ onal to the stretch or compression of
the spring, expressed by the equa on below:
Fs=‐k∆x The SI unit for force is the Newton (N), where 1 N = 1 kg·m/s
(the lb is the English unit). In other words, it
takes 1 N of force to accelerate a 1 kg mass by 1 m/s 2 .
If you are given a mass in kilograms, all you need to do to find the force (N) is to mul ply the mass by the accelera on due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s
. Take a
look at Figure 5 for an example. Another measurement of force you are familiar with is the pound (lb), but scien sts usually s ck with the SI units of measurement. When a number of forces act on an object at once, it is helpful to draw a free body diagram (FBD). Free body diagrams show all the forces ac ng on an object as arrows. For now, we will only talk about forc‐ es that point in the horizontal or ver cal direc ons. Since forces are vector quan es, when they add together we must take into account both magnitude and direc on. For example, if a 5 N force acts to the le on an object, and at the same me an 8 N force acts to the right, the total force or net force would be 3 N to the right. Using FBDs, you can visualize which forces will cancel others out. When you draw a FBD, each object of interest is drawn (you can draw the object, or even a box or point to represent the object), and each force is represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow rep‐ resents that magnitude of the force, and the direc on of the arrow indicates the direc on the force is ac ng upon the object. This way, you can visualize which forces will cancel out others, leaving a total net force in one direc on. If all the forces cancel each other out (for instance, equal but opposite forc‐ es in the ver cal and horizontal direc ons) the object is said to be in sta c equilibrium—the net force is equal to zero, even though there are many forces ac ng at once.
Figure 3: Despite gravity’s weakness as a force, it is responsible for the ball shape of planets and stars, and for the shape of galaxies. Masses within these structures a ract every other bit of mass within
the object, which creates their ball shape.
30
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Consider a book si ng on a table. If you apply a force to slide it across the table to your study partner, there are actually four forces involved in the mo on. The FBD would involve the normal force, gravity, the applied force and fric on, and the diagram is shown in Figure 4. The normal force arrow is drawn perpendicular to the surface, directly opposite the force of gravity in this case. We know the object is not moving in the ver cal direc on, so the ver cal forces are equal but in opposite direc ons and can‐ cel out on the net force diagram. Since enough force was applied to overcome fric on and move the book, we draw the applied force arrow longer than the fric onal force arrow that acts to resist mo on. The applied force is greater than the fric on force, so the net force is in the direc on of the applied force. This object will accelerate to the right. When an object is not moving in the horizontal or ver cal direc on, the sum of the forces must equal zero in that direc on (∑F=0).
Figure 4: The le figure is an example of a typical free body diagram (FBD) with a variety of forces labeled. The normal force (Fnorm) and the force due to gravity (Fgrav) must be equal and opposite because the object is not falling into the surfaces or accelera ng into the air. The applied force Fapp is larger than the force due to fric‐ on, so the net overall force Fnet points to the right‐‐shown on the reduced FBD on the right. The normal force
is not always directly opposite the force of gravity, as with an object res ng on an incline.
Figure 5: The 1 kg mass on the le is supported by a rope drawn around a pulley and anchored to a flat sur‐ face. The free body diagram on the right shows the case of sta c equilibrium: the force of gravity is balanced out
by the tension in the string. In FBDs only the forces ac ng direc onally on the object of interest ma er!
Figure 6: The two masses (weights labeled) are sus‐ pended by a single rope through a pulley wheel. The right side is a free body diagram for each mass; note that the tension in the string is the same on each side (in other words, the string does not stretch). The net force is upward on the 5 N mass and downward on the
8 N mass—which way will the assembly move?
31
Lab 2: Types of Forces
The following experiments will demonstrate the effects of balanced and unbalanced forces. You will draw Free Body Diagrams to analyze the balance of forces and use simple kinema c equa ons to calcu‐ late velocity and accelera on.
Experiment 1: Fric on When two materials are in contact with each other, the fric on between them acts to impede mo on. Fric on is always a reac on force, meaning fric on never causes an object to move by itself. Instead, fric on acts to oppose applied forces. The equa on used to calculate the force of fric on is:
Ff = μFN
where Ff is the force of fric on, μ is the coefficient of fric on which represents the roughness of the surface, and FN is the normal force. On a horizontal surface, FN = ‐mg, and the equa on becomes:
Ff = ‐μmg
In this lab you will demonstrate this rela onship between the normal force, FN, and the force of fric‐ on, Ff.
Figure 7: Since the force that team 1 exerts on team 2 is equal and opposite to the reac on force that team 2 exerts on team 1, how can anyone ever win a tug of war? If no accelera on is occurring, the
game is in a state of equilibrium.
32
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Procedure 1. Use Steps 2 ‐ 5 to complete the experiment with the plas c, Styrofoam, and paper cups. Begin with
the plas c cup, then use the Styrofoam cup, and conclude with the paper cup. Record the force readings on the spring scale for each trial in Table 1.
NOTE: For the paper cup, use smaller amounts of water as indicated in Table 1
Tie the string around the outside edge of the cup, leaving some slack. Tie a loop at the end of the string.
Fill the cup with 300 mL of water (1 mL water = 1 g water). Place the materials on a smooth, flat surface (be sure to use the same surface for each trial). Record a descrip on of the surface in Table 1.
Hook the spring scale to the string. Pull on the scale gradually un l the cup starts to slide at a con‐ stant speed. Record the value of the force (Fapp) as the cup starts to move in Table 1. Repeat four more mes.
Using the same cup, empty the cup and fill it back up with 150 mL of water. Measure the force re‐ quired to slide the cup. Repeat the process four more mes (as done in Step 4 with the 300 mL of water).
Average the data for the Force Applied (spring scale readings) columns and record your results in Table 1.
Materials Styrofoam cup Plas c cup Paper cup String Spring Scale
33
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Please submit your table data and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.
Cup Material Force Applied F1 m1 = 300 g water
Force Applied F2 m2 = 150 g water
F1 / FN1 F2 / FN2
Plas c
Avg: Avg: Avg: Avg:
Styrofoam
Avg: Avg: Avg: Avg:
Paper
F1 m1 = 150 g water
F2 m1 = 100 g water
F1 / FN1 F2 / FN2
Avg: Avg: Avg: Avg:
Surface Descrip on
Table 1: Applied force required to slide cup
34
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Ques ons 1. What happened to your applied force Fapp as you decreased the amount of water in the cup? 2. Assume the mass to be exactly equal to the mass of water. Calculate the normal force (FN) for 300
g, 150 g, and 100 g. Use these values to compute the ra o of the Applied Force (Fapp) to the Nor‐ mal Force (Fn). Place these values in the rightmost column of Table 1.
What do these last two columns represent? What is the ra o of the normal forces F1 / F300? Com‐ pare this to your values for F2/ F150, and F3/F100. What can you conclude about the ra o between the Force Normal and the Force Fric on? FN= mg FN (300 g) = _________kg × 9.8 m/s
= ___________
FN (150 g) = _________kg × 9.8 m/s 2 = ___________
FN (100 g) = _________kg × 9.8 m/s 2 = ___________
- Why doesn’t the normal force (FN) depend on the cup material? 4. Right as the cup begins to slide the applied force is equal to the Force Fric on (Ff)‐ draw a free body
diagram sliding each type of cup (a total of three diagrams). Label the Force Gravity (=mg), the Nor‐ mal Force (FN), and the Fric on Force (Ff), but don’t use any specific numbers. What makes this a state of equilibrium?
Does it take more force to slide an object across a surface if there is a high value of μ or a low one? Explain your answer
35
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Experiment 2: Velocity and Air‐resistance In a vacuum, all objects accelerate due to gravity at the same rate: 9.8 m/s
2 . In actuality, fric on from
air resistance prevents this from happening. A falling object will accelerate un l the force of air re‐ sistance matches the force on it due to gravity (mg). When these forces are equal, the object is said to have reached terminal velocity, and will con nue to fall at a constant rate indefinitely. In this experiment you will see how the air resistance of an object can work against the force of gravity for an object of low weight and a large air resistance. If the object is light enough, air resistance can cancel out the force of gravity, resul ng in a constant velocity.
Procedure 1 1. Measure the height of a table and record the value in Table 2. 2. Push one coffee filter off the edge of the table and start the stopwatch. In Table 2, record how
long it takes for the filter to hit the ground in Table 2. Repeat four mes and average your results. 3. Using the average me calculated from Step 2, find the average speed of the falling filter using the
measured height of the table. 4. Repeat Steps 2‐3 with two coffee filters stuck together.
Procedure 2 1. Find a higher table, or get a friend to help you drop the filter from a higher spot. Measure the actu‐
al height. 2. Push one coffee filter off the edge of the table and start the stopwatch. In Table 2, record how
long it takes for the filter to hit the ground in Table 2. Repeat four mes and average your results in Table 2.
Using the average me calculated from Step 2, find the average speed of the falling filter using the measured height of the table.
Repeat Steps 2‐3 with two coffee filters stuck together.
Materials Tape measure Stopwatch Coffee filters (re‐shape to how they would sit in a coffee pot)
36
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Please submit your table data and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.
Ques ons 1. Draw a FBD for the falling coffee filter. What is the net force?
Table 2: Coffee Filter Data
Procedure 1
1 Coffee Filter 2 Coffee Filters
Height of table (m)
Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 1
Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 2
Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 3
Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 4
Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 5
Calculated average speed (m/s)
Procedure 2
Measured height (m)
Calculated average speed (m/s)
Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 5
Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 1
Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 4
Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 2
Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 3
37
Lab 2: Types of Forces
What are we assuming by using the average velocity from Procedure 1 to es mate the height of the fall in Procedure 2?
- Is the object actually traveling at the average speed over the dura on of its fall? Where does the accelera on occur?
Draw the FBD for the 2‐filter combina on, assuming constant velocity. What is the net force?
How do your measured and calculated values for the height in Procedure 2 compare? If they are significantly different, explain what you think caused the difference.
Why do two coffee filters reach a higher velocity in free fall than one coffee filter?
How would the FBD differ for a round rubber ball dropped from the same height?
Lab 3: Newton’s Laws
41
Lab 3: Newton’s Laws
Forces can produce or prevent mo on. The laws used today to describe all aspects of mo on date back to the 1700s, when Sir Isaac Newton proposed a set of rules to describe how all objects move. New‐ ton’s First Law of Mo on states that an object will remain at rest, or in uniform mo on, unless acted on by an unbalanced force. In other words, objects have the tendency to resist changes in mo on. The concept that force can change the velocity of a mass is very important. Nothing would change without forces. Newton’s First Law is also called the Law of Iner a. Iner a is an object’s tendency to resist changes in state of mo on (speed or direc on). Ma er has this property whether it is at rest or in mo on. The First Law states that an object will con nue at a constant velocity in one direc on unless acted on by a net force. When a net force on an object is applied, the object will accelerate in the direc on of that
Figure 1: Newton’s First Law of Mo on in ac on ‐ billiard balls remain at rest un l an external force (the cue ball) causes them to move.
Concepts to explore: · Newton’s First Law
- Weight vs. Mass
- Iner a
- Newton’s Second Law
- Newton’s Third Law
42
Lab 3: Newton’s Laws
force. The movement of planets around the Sun is an example of in‐ er a. Planets have a lot of mass, and therefore a great amount of iner a—it takes a huge force to accelerate a planet in a new direc‐ on. The pull of gravity from the Sun keeps the planets in orbit—if
the Sun were to suddenly disappear, the planets would con nue at a constant speed in a straight line, shoo ng off into space! Newton also observed a special rela onship between mass and iner‐ a. Mass is o en confused with weight, but the difference is crucial in
physics. While mass is the measure of how much ma er is in an ob‐ ject (how much stuff is there), weight is a measure of the force expe‐ rienced by an object due to gravity. Thus, weight is rela ve to your loca on – your weight would differ at the Earth’s core, at the summit of Mount Everest, and especially in outer space, when compared to the surface. On the other hand, mass remains constant in all these loca ons. Mathema cally, weight is the mass of an object mul plied by its accelera on due to gravity:
w = mg
where w is weight, m is mass and g is gravity. Sir Isaac Newton noted that the greater an object’s mass, the more it resisted changes in mo on. Therefore, he concluded that mass and iner a are directly propor onal (↑mass = ↑iner a). This predic on produced Newton’s Second Law of Mo on, an expression for how an object will accelerate based on its mass and the net force applied to the object. This law can be summarized by the equa on:
ΣF = ma where ΣF is the sum of all forces ac ng on the object, m is its mass and a is its accelera on. The stand‐ ard measurement for mass is the kilogram (kg), and for accelera on is the meter/sec/sec, or m/s
2 . The
standard measurement for force is the Newton, where 1 N = 1 kg·m/s 2 . Comparing this equa on to the
first one helps reinforce the difference between mass and force (such as weight). Newton’s Third Law of Mo on states that for every ac on there is an equal, but opposite reac on. When you hold up a heavy object, the force of gravity is pulling the object down against your hands. In order to keep the object from falling to the floor, your hands and arms supply an equal and opposite force upward against the ball. Thus, single forces do not exist, only pairs of forces (the ac on force and the reac on force). You might not think about it, but you do not directly feel the force of gravity when you stand on the ground; what you’re really feeling is the opposing force exerted by the ground that keeps you from falling toward the center of the earth! Even when you walk, you push against the ground, and it pushes right back! Newton’s three laws of mo on govern the rela onship of forces and accelera on. There are many ap‐ plica ons of Newton’s Laws in your everyday life. To get that last bit of ketchup from the bo le, you
Figure 2: When this player leaps to the bas‐ ket you are seeing the Third Law in ac on: the player’s downward push receives an equal and opposite force upward from the ground. Without this reac on force, he
would have no way to accelerate upward to the rim.
43
Lab 3: Newton’s Laws
shake the bo le upside‐down, and quickly stop it (with the lid). Consider riding in a car. Have you ever experienced iner a while rapidly accelera ng or decelera ng? Thousands of lives are saved every year by seatbelts, which are safety restraints that protect against the iner a that propels a person forward when a car comes to a quick stop.
Experiment 1: Newton’s First Law
Procedure 1. Fill the container with about 4 inches of water. 2. Find an open space outside to walk around in with the container of water in your hands. 3. Perform the following ac vi es:
Start with the water at rest (i.e., on top of a table). Grab the container and quickly acceler‐ ate.
Walk with constant speed in a straight line for 15 feet. c. A er walking a straight line at constant speed, make an abrupt right‐hand turn. Repeat with
a le ‐hand turn. d. A er walking a straight line at constant speed, stop abruptly.
Record your observa ons for each type of mo on from Step 3 in the space below. Comment on where the water tended to move. If it spilled, note if it spilled right, le , away from you, or toward you.
- b. c. d.
Materials Deep bowl or pitcher* Water* * You must provide
44
Lab 3: Newton’s Laws
Ques ons Please submit your answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.
Explain how your observa ons of the water demonstrate Newton’s law of iner a.
Draw a free body diagram of your containers of water from the situa on in Step 3, Part d. Draw arrows for the force of gravity, the normal force (your hand pushing up on the container), and the stopping force (your hand decelera ng the container as you stop.) What is the direc on of the water’s accelera on?
*Note, free body diagrams are discussed in depth in Lab 2: Types of Forces. See Figure 3 for a sample diagram. Remember, the ob‐ ject is usually indicated as a box, and each force that acts upon the box is indicated with an arrow. The size of the arrow indicates the magnitude of the force, and the direc on of the arrow indi‐ cates the direc on which the force is ac ng. Each arrow should be labeled to iden fy the type of force. Note, not all objects have four forces ac ng upon them.
Can you think of any instances when your are driving or riding a car that are similar to this experi‐ ment? Describe two instances where you feel forces in a car in terms of iner a.
Experiment 2: Unbalanced Forces – Newton’s Second Law This experiment will demonstrate the mechanical laws of mo on using a simple assembly similar to that used by Rev. George Atwood in 1784 to verify Newton’s Second Law, named the Atwood machine.
Materials Pulley String Tape measure Stop watch 2 Paperclips 15 Washers Masking tape
Ffric on Fapp
Fnormal
Fgravity
Figure 3
45
Lab 3: Newton’s Laws
Procedure 1 1. Support the pulley so that objects hanging from it can descend
to the floor. (i.e., Tape a pencil to the top of a table, door, etc.) Remember that higher support will produce longer me inter‐ vals which are easier to measure. See
Thread a piece of string through the pulley so that you can a ach washers to both ends of the string. The string should be long enough for one set of washers to touch the ground with the other set near the pulley. (You may a ach the washers using a paperclip or by tying them on.)
Count out 15 washers 4. A ach seven washers to each end of the string. 5. Observe how the washers on one side behave when you pull
on the washers on the other side. Answer ques on 1 based on your observa ons.
Add the remaining washer to one end of the string so one side of the string has seven washers (M1), and the other has 8 washers a ached to it (M2).
Place M1 on the floor. Measure the height of M2 when sus‐ pended while M1 is on the floor. Measure the distance M2 falls when you release the light set when it is in contact with the floor, and record it in Table 1.
Time how long it takes for M2 to reach the floor. 9. Repeat Steps 7 ‐ 8 four more mes (for a total of five mes),
recording the values in Table 1. Calculate the average me. 10. Calculate the accelera on (assuming it is constant) from the
average me and the distance the washers moved. Refer to the “Hint” below Table 1 for help.
Procedure 2 1. Transfer one washer, so that there are six on one end of the
string (M1) and nine on the other (M2). 2. Place the M1 on the floor. Measure the height that M2 is sus‐
pended at while M1 is on the floor. Measure the distance M2 will fall if you release the light set when it is in contact with the floor.
Time how long it takes for the heavy set of washers to reach the floor.
Repeat Steps 2 ‐ 3 four more mes (for a total of five mes), recording the values in a table and then calculate the average me.
Calculate the accelera on (assuming it is constant) from the average me and the distance the washers moved.
Figure 5: Atwood machine. The tension force is directed up for both M1 and M2. M1 accelerates upward, and M2 acceler‐ ates downward. Do you know what causes the downward force?
M2
M1 Tension force
Tension force
Figure 4: Sample experimental set‐up. This set‐up hangs the pulley from a pencil that has been taped to a table. Although, any level surface (such as a counter‐top or door) will suffice. Metal washers will also be ed to both ends of the string for this experiment. Do not e the string in a knot you cannot un e!
46
branches of statistical methods Essay Case Assignment
RUBRIC
QUALITY OF RESPONSE NO RESPONSE POOR / UNSATISFACTORY SATISFACTORY GOOD EXCELLENT Content (worth a maximum of 50% of the total points) Zero points: Student failed to submit the final paper. 20 points out of 50: The essay illustrates poor understanding of the relevant material by failing to address or incorrectly addressing the relevant content; failing to identify or inaccurately explaining/defining key concepts/ideas; ignoring or incorrectly explaining key points/claims and the reasoning behind them; and/or incorrectly or inappropriately using terminology; and elements of the response are lacking. 30 points out of 50: The essay illustrates a rudimentary understanding of the relevant material by mentioning but not full explaining the relevant content; identifying some of the key concepts/ideas though failing to fully or accurately explain many of them; using terminology, though sometimes inaccurately or inappropriately; and/or incorporating some key claims/points but failing to explain the reasoning behind them or doing so inaccurately. Elements of the required response may also be lacking. 40 points out of 50: The essay illustrates solid understanding of the relevant material by correctly addressing most of the relevant content; identifying and explaining most of the key concepts/ideas; using correct terminology; explaining the reasoning behind most of the key points/claims; and/or where necessary or useful, substantiating some points with accurate examples. The answer is complete. 50 points: The essay illustrates exemplary understanding of the relevant material by thoroughly and correctly addressing the relevant content; identifying and explaining all of the key concepts/ideas; using correct terminology explaining the reasoning behind key points/claims and substantiating, as necessary/useful, points with several accurate and illuminating examples. No aspects of the required answer are missing. Use of Sources (worth a maximum of 20% of the total points). Zero points: Student failed to include citations and/or references. Or the student failed to submit a final paper. 5 out 20 points: Sources are seldom cited to support statements and/or format of citations are not recognizable as APA 6th Edition format. There are major errors in the formation of the references and citations. And/or there is a major reliance on highly questionable. The Student fails to provide an adequate synthesis of research collected for the paper. 10 out 20 points: References to scholarly sources are occasionally given; many statements seem unsubstantiated. Frequent errors in APA 6th Edition format, leaving the reader confused about the source of the information. There are significant errors of the formation in the references and citations. And/or there is a significant use of highly questionable sources. 15 out 20 points: Credible Scholarly sources are used effectively support claims and are, for the most part, clear and fairly represented. APA 6th Edition is used with only a few minor errors. There are minor errors in reference and/or citations. And/or there is some use of questionable sources. 20 points: Credible scholarly sources are used to give compelling evidence to support claims and are clearly and fairly represented. APA 6th Edition format is used accurately and consistently. The student uses above the maximum required references in the development of the assignment. Grammar (worth maximum of 20% of total points) Zero points: Student failed to submit the final paper. 5 points out of 20: The paper does not communicate ideas/points clearly due to inappropriate use of terminology and vague language; thoughts and sentences are disjointed or incomprehensible; organization lacking; and/or numerous grammatical, spelling/punctuation errors 10 points out 20: The paper is often unclear and difficult to follow due to some inappropriate terminology and/or vague language; ideas may be fragmented, wandering and/or repetitive; poor organization; and/or some grammatical, spelling, punctuation errors 15 points out of 20: The paper is mostly clear as a result of appropriate use of terminology and minimal vagueness; no tangents and no repetition; fairly good organization; almost perfect grammar, spelling, punctuation, and word usage. 20 points: The paper is clear, concise, and a pleasure to read as a result of appropriate and precise use of terminology; total coherence of thoughts and presentation and logical organization; and the essay is error free. Structure of the Paper (worth 10% of total points) Zero points: Student failed to submit the final paper. 3 points out of 10: Student needs to develop better formatting skills. The paper omits significant structural elements required for and APA 6th edition paper. Formatting of the paper has major flaws. The paper does not conform to APA 6th edition requirements whatsoever. 5 points out of 10: Appearance of final paper demonstrates the student’s limited ability to format the paper. There are significant errors in formatting and/or the total omission of major components of an APA 6th edition paper. They can include the omission of the cover page, abstract, and page numbers. Additionally the page has major formatting issues with spacing or paragraph formation. Font size might not conform to size requirements. The student also significantly writes too large or too short of and paper 7 points out of 10: Research paper presents an above-average use of formatting skills. The paper has slight errors within the paper. This can include small errors or omissions with the cover page, abstract, page number, and headers. There could be also slight formatting issues with the document spacing or the font Additionally the paper might slightly exceed or undershoot the specific number of required written pages for the assignment. 10 points: Student provides a high-caliber, formatted paper. This includes an APA 6th edition cover page, abstract, page number, headers and is double spaced in 12’ Times Roman Font. Additionally, the paper conforms to the specific number of required written pages and neither goes over or under the specified length of the paper.
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